The Economics of Manure Application Methods

 By Daniel Hudson, UVM Extension Agronomist

A very interesting question was posed by a farmer yesterday in response to the article Points to Ponder as the Manure is Being Applied.  The question was: How much is injecting liquid dairy manure worth in this weather?   The short answer for farmers applying around 12,000 gallons per acre is: the approximate value of the nitrogen saved is between $25 and $100/acre, depending on the alternative application method chosen.

image from extension.org

Background

For those less familiar with the science behind the question, manure contains ammonium (NH₄⁺).  Once applied, much/most of this ammonium is converted to ammonia (NH₃), which evaporates/volatilizes very quickly, especially if it is warm, sunny, and/or windy.  The nitrogen lost to the atmosphere could have otherwise been used for plant growth and usually needs to be replaced by another [costly] source of nitrogen.  Injecting the manure below the soil surface reduces the exposure to the atmosphere and reduces ammonia loss.

Here we will explore the economic value of the nitrogen retained when manure is injected rather than surface broadcasting the manure:

• without incorporation
• with immediate incorporation; and
• with delayed incorporation

Manure Math

The value of injection depends on the analysis of the manure being applied and the alternative way the manure would have been incorporated.  Nutrient content of manure varies widely among farms and even on a particular farm.  Farmers should test manure from their own farms rather than relying on book values.

Retention of ammonium-N in an injection system will also depend on how the injection is done.  For the sake of simplicity, we will assume that the injection is done under reasonable conditions and results in basically no loss of ammonium-N.

The example manure report used in this discussion is provided on the second to last page of the UVM publication “Nutrient Recommendations for Field Crops in Vermont.” The manure analysis report showed that every 1,000 gallons of that liquid dairy manure contains:

• 10.5 pounds of nitrogen in the form of ammonium (NH­₄⁺)
• 24.8 pounds of nitrogen in organic forms (about 35% of this will be available this year, 12% next year, and 5% in the third year)
• 8.7 pounds of phosphate
• 23.2 pounds of potash

The farmer who asked the question was in an area where he should expect a 25 ton/ac or higher corn silage yield.  Twenty five tons of corn silage (as harvested) will remove about 225 pounds of N, 125 pounds of phosphate (P), and 275 pounds of potash (K).  These values are calculated from Table 19 of Nutrient Recommendations for Field Crops in Vermont.

Let us assume that the soil test report on this farm is such that he decides to aim for a

The less manure that is visible on the soil surface after injection, the lower the ammonia-N losses will be. Photo from Virginia Tech

manure application rate that will satisfy the potash requirement for his crop.  This means that he would need to divide the 275 pound K­₂O needed by the 23.2 pounds of K₂O provided per 1,000 gallons of manure. This yields a target application rate of 11,800 gallons of liquid dairy manure per acre.  Keeping in mind that this manure also has 10.5 pounds of N (in the form of ammonium) per 1,000 gallons, this would also provide 124 pounds of plant-available nitrogen.  Because this producer has great equipment and process, we will assume that he is not losing significant ammonia to the atmosphere.

Finally, we must not forget that the manure analysis is also showing that he is applying

24.8 pounds of organic N per thousand gallons.  Multiplying 24.8 by 11.8 (thousand gallons) = 295 pounds of N per acre is being applied in various organic forms.  Of this 295 pounds, 35% (which amounts to 103 pounds) is expected to be available to the crop this year.  Assuming last year’s manure application was the same, you will get 12% of the nitrogen released from last year’s nitrogen application: 103 X 0.12 = ~12 pounds per acre.  This brings your total nitrogen availability up to 124 + 103 + 12 = 239 pounds of plant available nitrogen from manure alone!    Remember in school when everyone was wondering when in the world they would need to do story problems?

That is a lot of nitrogen!  How much might I lose if I do not inject or quickly incorporate, and what is that worth?

This is a more relevant question for most farmers because few use injection systems. In the Cornell factsheet called Nitrogen Credits from Manure, the authors suggest that loss of 35% of the ammonium nitrogen in liquid dairy manure can be lost in a SINGLE DAY if it is not incorporated; 47% in 2 days; and 71% in four days.  Immediate incorporation can be nearly as effective for retaining N as injection if you have the equipment and labor handy.  If manure is topdressed without incorporation, you should expect to lose at least 80% of the ammonium N.  Using the example above, this would be equivalent to losing 99 of the 124 pounds of ammonium-N.  Last year sidedress nitrogen costs about $1/lb (applied), this scenario would basically cost the farmer $100/acre.

Emerging from these numbers is the impressive amount of N that can come from manure, as well as the importance of recognizing it, keeping it, and accounting for it during the cropping season.

Points to Ponder as the Manure is Being Applied

By Daniel Hudson, UVM Extension Agronomist

While the current weather allows us to get lots of field work done, it is not conducive to retention of ammonia from the manure being applied to the fields.  Understanding that we often have no choice but to carry out tasks in imperfect conditions, here are some things to

from extension.usu.edu

keep in mind:

• In the current conditions (dry, warm, sunny, windy), it may take only 3 days to lose 50% of the ammonia nitrogen from unincorporated top-dressed dairy manure.  Depending on your manure analysis and rate of application, that could easily mean that you have lost 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre just from ammonia loss!  Incorporate if you can.  If you cannot, account for the losses accordingly when thinking about nitrogen fertility for the rest of the season for that crop.  In corn, a PSNT or the Cornell Adapt-N program can help you determine an optimal sidedress rate.
• This is the type of weather where urease inhibitors (included in urea-containing fertilizers) are more likely to pay you back quickly.  Urea that is spread right now can easily be lost via volatilization – up to 15% losses over 10 days at 75⁰F, and more if we get light wetting/drying cycles.
• Manure testing is extremely important even if you expect significant loss.  After it gets applied, it is too late to test it!  Predicting how much more nitrogen you will need for your crop is impossible unless you know how much went on and you can make an educated determination about how much may have been lost.
• If you want to use the Cornell Adapt-N program to determine your sidedress rates for your corn, you NEED to have your manure tested.  This test is designed to be a replacement for the pre-sidedress nitrate test and shows much potential for optimizing N-rates and reducing your work/frustration load.

The quality of any sample (manure or soil) is only as good as the process used to collect it.

Determined VT farmer finds new way to spread manure (from extension.purdue.edu)

• To understand the big picture: manure sampling basics
• The manure sampling protocol described by Dairy One is excellent.
• Cooling the sample slows microbial activity.  The more quickly you cool the samples, the more accurate the manure test report will be.  Freezing samples soon after collection and prior to sending it to the lab is ideal.
• You can pick up manure sampling kits at your local Extension office or you can print off the forms from the UVM Soils Lab website and use plastic jars of your own.  Jars should be plastic, clean, have a wide mouth, and have a volume of about a quart,.
• Jars should be about ¾ full; filling them more can result in the jar rupturing in the freezer….

University of Vermont works with University of Maine for soil and manure testing.  Cornell works with Agro-One (a subunit of DairyOne) for soil and manure testing.  You can print off the forms necessary for sample submission at:

• UVM Manure Analysis Submission Form or Dairy One Agronomy Testing Services
• Other certified manure testing laboratories

Can Fertilizer Additives Save Me Money?

By Daniel Hudson, and Heather Darby UVM Extension Agronomists

In times of high fertilizer costs there is increasing interest in using various fertilizer adjuvants. The goals of the adjuvants are to enhance the effectiveness of a fertilizer and to reduce fertilizer losses to the environment. Agronomists often get asked about whether fertilizer adjuvants are worthwhile.  It will probably come as no surprise that research has shown that some are economically beneficial sometimes, others rarely, and some almost

picture from USDA

never.

Here are a few beginning principles:

1. Products that you are considering should be backed by rigorous objective research.  Research reports should include exactly how, when, where, and by whom the research was conducted, along with contact information and disclosures of conflicts of interest.
2. Products should have a proposed mechanism that is accepted by experts in the field.  In this case, unbiased soil chemists ought to be able to explain how/why/when the product works.
3. Fertilizer additives should NEVER displace good management practices.

Nitrification inhibitors such as nitrapyrin (N-Serve^® and Instinct^®) and cyanoguanidine (Super-U^® and Guardian^®) slow the conversion of ammonium (NH₄⁺), which is held by soil particles, to nitrate (NO₃^-), which is easily leached below the reach of plant roots.  Since nitrification inhibitors influence only the conversion of NH₄⁺ to NO₃^-, they only protect the NH₄⁺portion of the fertilizer product. While these products do slow the nitrification process, yield results have been inconsistent among studies.  Reasons for this inconsistency may include:

• The duration of efficacy might not be long enough and nitrification eventually happens anyway.
• Leaching does not happen to the same extent in all soils, so nitrate leaching may be minimal even if nitrification occurs.
• Nitrogen may not have been limiting in some or all years.
• Drought conditions may have obscured potential nitrogen effects.

In well-drained soils, these products seem to reduce leaching in some cases.  In poorly drained soils, preserving nitrogen in the ammonium form could slow the denitrification process (where soil microbes remove the oxygen from NO₃^- and the N portion of that molecule is released as N₂).

Urease inhibitors such as Agrotain^® are intended to inhibit the ability for urease (an enzyme found in the soil and on plant surfaces) to degrade urea.  When urease is fully active, it causes ammonia to be released in a process commonly called volatilization.  If urea is incorporated into the soil by tillage or by about ½ inch of rain, volatilization losses can almost be eliminated without the use of a urease inhibitor.  Urease inhibitors will be most effective in no-till situations or in instances where urea is surface-applied and rain is not expected for several days.  Volatilization losses are favored by heat, wind, moist soils, and alternating wetting-drying cycles.  An Illinois study where conventional tillage was used demonstrated a three bushel per acre benefit over 12 years.  A no-till study in Kentucky where urea + Agrotain^® was used demonstrated an 11 bushel/acre yield benefit over 12 years.

A family of products from Specialty Fertilizer Products (SFP) includes NutriSphere-N^®, Avail-P^®, and More than Manure^® (MTM^®).  These products are polymers of maleic and itaconic acid.  The company suggests that they tie up copper and nickel ions in the soil, ions which are necessary for the function of enzymes involved for urease activity and denitrification.  They also suggest that the product binds calcium ions in the zone around the fertilizer particle that could potentially immobilize the phosphorus.  At this point, objective data that suggests that these products have a significant positive effect on yield is nearly nonexistent, while studies that suggest no yield effect are more numerous.

Fertilizer application timing, source, application method, soil texture, and tillage are some of the factors that should be considered to determine whether a nitrification or urease inhibitor may be beneficial in a given situation. Before buying a product claiming to be a fertilizer enhancing adjuvant, be sure its efficacy is supported by solid scientific data. If you decide to try one of these products, consider contacting a UVM Extension Agronomist to help you set up a statistically valid research plot on your farm.

Concerns about Red Clover: Phytoestrogens, etc.

We have had a great conversation on the frost-seeding this week on the Vermont Pasture Network list-serve!

The reason I think it is important to spend time on this topic is because of the tremendous impact that red clover could have on so many farms that currently have very few legumes.  If people are ‘afraid’ of red clover and exclude it from their forage system (in reasonable proportion), I believe that they will generally be poorer for it.

This is long, but there have been a lot of great questions on this topic, and I wanted to address them sooner than later because the frost seeding window will probably be very narrow this year.  Here are the topics that will be covered – not all in as much detail as I would like:

• Are phytoestrogens really present and can/will they present a problem for my animals?
• Which other species can be frost-seeded, and how is that best accomplished?
• What other methods might work?
• Soil potassium and inoculation
• Variety – how important is it?
• Inoculation
• Frothy bloat

Are phytoestrogens really present and can/will they present a problem for my animals?

Yes, apparently some people even seek milk from cows fed red clover. Can it cause reproductive problems?  Yes, but it seems to be extraordinarily rare, and I am not aware of any instances of this being formally documented in the U.S.  If it has happened ever, it is probably the result of some combination of the following factors:

• Plant stress: Drought stress, poor soil fertility, disease pressure, and insect damage can all induce changes in plant hormone levels.  The problem is that one cannot assume which way the hormone levels will change in the presence or absence of certain types of stress.  One review suggest that clover grown under nutrient stress can have higher levels of formononetin (the main phytoestrogen of concern in red clover)
  

  chemical structure of formononetin. From http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com

• Time of year: Australian research suggests that formononetin levels in red clover are higher in the spring and taper off after flowering.
• proportion: if you feed you animals only one species of plant (or even sometimes if you are heavily skewed in toward one species), your animals are more likely to develop any theoretical problems associated with that species.  Many plants (including alfalfa, ryegrass, etc) can be found on lists of toxic plants.
• animal stress: animals that are stressed because of management issues are more prone to succumb to secondary influences that otherwise would probably not be a problem.
• genetics of the variety planted: some varieties have higher levels of various compounds, including phytoestrogens (specifically, formononetin).  Apparently there have been many varieties of red clover that have been developed with the goal of having lower levels of phytoestrogens. I could only find reference to two: Aber Ruby is available in the U.K., and a variety called Redquin does not seem to be available any longer.

Some time ago, I asked a colleague (sheep specialist and sheep farmer from another state) this question because I have heard a lot of people wondering.  He has probably gotten the question more than anybody.  While he affirms the reality of the problem on subterranean

subterranean clover From: calphotos.berkley.edu

clover in Australia, he has never seen it in the Eastern U.S.   This does not mean that it has never happened here — only that it is very rare if it ever does happen.  One theory is that because ‘clover disease’ exists, it can be a convenient scapegoat for reproductive problems that are more likely related to other husbandry problems occurring on the farm.

To be clear, most legumes do have phytoestrogens of various types, and they always have [no, Monsanto did not put them there].  Under what circumstances can they become a problem?
What does the research say?

Most of the research on the subject has been done in Australia, where the focus has been on subterranean clover.  The types and levels of phytoestrogens in old varieties of subterranean clover can cause severe reproductive disruptions.  Newer varieties that have been selectively bred to have low levels of phytoestrogens cause little or no reproductive disturbance.  We do not grow subterranean clover in the Northeastern United States.  There has been almost no research done on this subject in the U.S.  See: Sheep Infertility from Pasture Legumes (Australia)

Some researchers in the U.K. and Australia have documented impacts of red clover on ewe reproduction.  Other researchers have found no adverse impacts.  One study (to which I only have access to the abstract) showed a significant impact of red clover on lambing percentage, but it appeared as though the red clover pastures were PURE red clover – which nobody would ever recommend, for various reasons.  If you want to see a full review of the literature on the subject go to: A review of the effect of legumes on ewe and cow fertility.   Understand that this is a review of what has been said by researchers in different places over the years.  The conclusion of the paper is that more work needs to be done.

Can a researcher induce reproductive problems on animals in their studies under some circumstances?  Absolutely!  And it is often so fascinating to the researcher that they often forget to consider and/or communicate the practical management implications of their findings if any exist.  Either that or they run out of money.

What about the impact of red clover on swine reproduction?

Most of the research that I came across on this topic focused on soy and mycotoxins (zeralenone, in particular); nothing about clover.

So why the buzz over the years about phytoestrogens in red clover?

It seems to me that this is where human psychology comes in.  When we hear that something can or has been a problem in some circumstances, it can begin to loom very large in the minds of some.  Airplanes can crash and it has happened.  Yet, we are told that air travel is safer (statistically) than driving a car.  Even so, some people will not get in an airplane because airplanes can crash and that would be scary.

What has practical experience suggested?

There are a lot of farmers who have fed their animals diets heavy in red clover and have never detected any adverse reproductive effects on their livestock, even while experiencing higher average daily gain and more animal gain per acre.  There have been occasions where there have [apparently] been reproductive disturbances in livestock, and in some cases clover has been blamed — rightly or wrongly.   See the abstract from a 1982 case report from Finland, below.  See also Does Red Clover Cause Infertility in Sheep? – by Ulf Kintzel (farmer).

Which other species can be frost-seeded, and how is that best accomplished?

•  Red clover is the most popular forage crop to reseed – by far.
• White clover is not as quick to establish, but because it spreads by stolons, what might look like a poor seedling density can turn into a great stand of white clover over a year or two.
• Sweet clover is often used in wheat systems where frost-seeding is carried out.  It is very drought tolerant, but prefers soils with a more
  

  Sweet clover. From: http://agronomy.ifas.ufl.edu

  neutral pH.  It may have a bitter taste to animals at first; like anything else, they can/will come to eat it once they know what it is.  One word of caution: moldy sweet clover often has high levels of dicoumeral (i.e., warfarin, rat poison), which is a vitamin K antagonist and ultimately can lead to internal bleeding and death.  Scary.  Again, this is not common and it can loom large in one’s mind, but it is wise to avoid trying use it as stored feed.  You can learn more about it by reading Sweet Clover Production and Utilization in Indiana.

• Many other grass species can also work using non-conventional establishment methods, but success will be generally be lower than with the ryegrasses.  Avoid using ryegrasses on sandy soil and soils with poor fertility.
• Regarding seeding methods: whatever your particular approach, you can increase your odds of success by keeping in mind
  • uniform distribution
  • seed-soil contact
  • managing competition and seedling abuse
  • matching the species you choose to your own farming context

• Perennial and Italian ryegrasses are known to be the most aggressive grasses during
  

  drilled perennial ryegrass in the spring after establishment

  the establishment phase and you are more likely to have success with these grasses than others if you are trying to renovate an existing pasture or hay field.

  • The question remains: do they offer what you need?  While they are excellent for haylage and grazing, their waxy cuticle and low dry matter content increases the difficulty of making dry hay from them.
  • Some perennial ryegrass varieties will persist well in Vermont, and others will not.  Be sure to get the best information you can about varieties.
  • I would far rather drill grasses into a pasture than broadcast.  They are chaffy and it is too easy for them to get hung up in thatch if they are broadcast.

Soil fertility: one reason that legumes are scarce in some fields is because of inadequate

soil sampling

potassium, acidic soils, and in many cases, low phosphorus levels.  Anything you can do to correct these problems will enhance the establishment and longevity of your legumes.  From what I have observed on most farms, if you do not know the soil fertility situations in your fields, you probably have a soil fertility problem that is negatively impacting your farm economics.  You cannot know what the particular problems are without soil testing.

Inoculation?

Inoculation is cheap insurance, and I recommend it.  Whether you buy your seed pre-inoculated or purchase a liquid or peat-based inoculant from your seed dealer, it is a good idea to inoculte.  That said, the bacteria clovers need for N-fixation are probably already in most soils in VT.  Theoretically, over the years rhizobia can become less

Peat-based inoculant. From: http://agnews.tamu.edu

‘effective’ at fixing nitrogen.  I have never seen data that describes the extent to which this impacts total N fixation rates or overall pasture productivity.  If it came down to frost-seeding on time without inoculation and waiting a week to get the inoculant, it seems to me that seeding on time is more important.

Grass and legume variety – how important is it?

While variety not state (VNS) clover can be just fine, you have NO IDEA what you are getting.  I was running through this exercise with a farmer the other day.  If you are going to frost-seed 100 acres at 5 pounds per acre, you would need 500 pounds of seed total.  For the sake of simple calculations, let’s say that the cost of VNS seed is about $2/lb, and the cost of a named variety is about $3/lb.  The total cost of the VNS seed: $1,000; and the named variety: $1,500.  Wow!  Five hundred dollars is a lot of money!  True, but if the named variety gives you only $5/acre more forage over the course of two years, it will pay for itself.  The Cornell Forage Variety Trial report shows that certain varieties will yield more than one ton more than the ‘check’ variety (an old variety) over two years, and sometimes up to 0.8 tons in a single year.  That is worth much more than $5/acre!  Because there is variable resistance to root diseases in red clover, choosing an improved (disease resistant) variety might also allow many of the plants to survive a year longer than a non-resistant variety.

What about bloat?

Bloat is the result of the formation of a stable foam in the rumen that ultimately prevents eructation (belching).  If the gasses in the rumen cannot escape, the rumen gets tight like a balloon –so tight that blood flow is impaired in the rumen tissue, which can cause many bad things to happen.  Bloat is scary.  Bloat is also rare.  While I have never seen frothy bloat, my understanding is that it is most likely to occur if you:

1. Manage your pastures in such a way that your pastures have a high percentage of clover or alfalfa.  The literature suggests that if you have 50% grass or more, it is very rare. Trefoil is not known to cause bloat.
2. Leave your animals on lousy pasture all night – make sure they are good and hungry the next morning
3. First thing, while the dew is still on the clover, rotate the hungry animals onto the lush, dewy clover and alfalfa such that they gorge themselves on it.

Animals with bloat need to be treated quickly because they can die within an hour.  Keep

An animal with frothy bloat. From http://vernon.edu

in mind that some animals are ‘chronic bloaters.’  This can be due to their particular dietary preferences or because of a condition unrelated to what they are eating.  Generally, they are good ones to get rid of.  See also: Bloat, by Dan Undersander (University of Wisconsin).

Frost Seeding Red Clover in Hay Fields and Pastures

By Daniel Hudson, UVM Extension Agronomist

Livestock producers in the Northeast tend to have very few legumes in their hay fields, and often fewer than they would like in their pastures.  Universities and popular press have extensively promoted alfalfa to dairy farmers over the last several generations, and companies have heavily invested in developing new varieties.  Under the best of conditions, alfalfa plants typically do not live more than 6 or 7 years; in situations where drainage is poor and/or pH is low, the plants will not yield well and most will disappear in less than four years.  The result of this has been that many farmers in the Northeast do not like alfalfa and many have ceased to be concerned about whether they have any legumes whatsoever.

Why red clover?

red clover with meadow fescue in the year after seeding, North Danville, VT

When discussing the merits and demerits of different pasture grass and legume species, New England dairy farmers are quick to point out that the feed quality of alfalfa is often over-stated (given lower NDF digestibility) and that grass haylage can offer tremendous quality.  If you have great grass on your farm, why consider clover at all?

Compared to N-fertilized grass alone, red clover grown in combination with grass can increase annual forage dry matter yields by 30% in addition to boosting overall protein of the sward by 3-5% (or more), depending on the proportion of red clover and the cutting.  Further, because of a compound (polyphenol oxidase) found in red clover, red clover haylage has 40% less non protein nitrogen (NPN) than alfalfa haylage.

A USDA-ARS study found that cows fed a ration that included red clover haylage produced 69 pounds of milk on 49 pounds of feed, while a ration that replaced the red clover haylage with alfalfa haylage yielded 68 pounds of milk on 54 pounds of feed.  Nitrogen efficiency in the cow was also found to be higher, which has several benefits not the least of which is lower metabolic costs associated with excreting nitrogen.  While nutritionists and dairy farmers could argue whether alfalfa or red clover haylage is superior (more profitable) for inclusion in a dairy ration, for those who cannot grow alfalfa, red clover is an excellent option that can nicely complement the grasses already in the field.

Sugaring season is here, and that means that it is also time to frost-seed red clover in your pastures and hay fields if you have it in your mind to do it at all. If you are interested in a low-cost method of increasing forage yield and quality in hay fields and pastures, read on….

Note: while it is possible to make dry hay from red clover, it is often challenging.  This discussion is oriented toward haylage and pasture systems.

Why and how to frost-seed clover

white clover

Unlike most other legumes (especially alfalfa), red clover is quite shade tolerant, which is why it is a favorite for frost seeding into existing perennial pastures and even winter wheat.   It is not uncommon to formulate frost-seeding mixtures for pastures to include 2 lb/ac of ladino white clover.  In haylage-only systems (i.e., the field never gets pastured), however, including white clover in the frost-seeding mixture is not advisable because red clover offers so much more yield potential.  Further, it is likely that white clover would provide significant light competition for the red clover during the early stages of growth between cuttings, although there has been little or no research done on the subject.

Equipment

frost seeding in South Kirby, VT

The first goal of frost seeding is to uniformly distribute 6-12 lb/ac of red clover seed on the fields in question. While there are various ways to accomplish this, the simplest is an ATV-mounted spinner spreader such as the Herd seeder sold by Kaso Manufacturing Company.  If you use this type of spreader, be sure to check your broadcast pattern and calibrate so that you don’t run out of seed prematurely.  If you blend red clover seed with fertilizer or other types of seed, keep in mind that each component will have a different broadcast width.

Farmers have also successfully increased legume content in established hay fields using conventional and no-till grain drills, but the conditions need to be right.  Using a drill will probably work better than broadcasting if the freeze-thaw cycle is all or mostly over (but the grass has not started growing) or if the soils have low clay content.  Regardless of the equipment you use, the main objective is to give the seeds some seed-soil contact – you are not trying to put the seed 1/2” below the soil surface.

If you only have access to a conventional grain drill, the seeding is best done during the warmer part of the day when the surface of the soil has thawed somewhat (with plenty of frost below to prevent rutting).  The openers will probably only scratch the surface, and the press-wheels will help improve seed contact with the soil.  Keep in mind that this is often harder on the grain drill than pulling it through a prepared seedbed in April; going slower will help minimize damage.

There are other inventive methods farmers can use to get the job done.  If you have another approach in mind, be sure to verify that the seed is being applied uniformly and that most of the seeds are getting in contact with the soil.

Varieties

red clover during August of the year of frost seeding

Named varieties are ‘safer’ because you know what you are going to get, but they are also

while this picture was taken one year after frost seeding, this is about what mammoth red clover clover looks like during the fall after frost seeding

more expensive (sometimes a bit over $3/lb).  That said, I have had good success with variety not stated (VNS) red clover seed (usually closer to $2/lb), but there was one occasion where the VNS red clover turned out to be a ‘mammoth’ type of red clover.  While it has its place in northern cropping systems, mammoth clover is not usually desirable in a perennial pasture or hay field because it does not yield much in the first year and gives one massive cutting in the second year.

 

 

 

Attempts at frost seeding can be very successful or complete failures.  What makes the difference?

Seed-soil contact: the shrinking/swelling soil as it freezes and thaws should improve the contact of the clover seed with the soil.  Soils with a lot of clay tend to shrink/swell a lot, while sandy soils do not.  Keep in mind that the presence of excessive thatch can keep much of the seed from reaching the ground at all.

Soil conditions Droughty, very poorly drained, acidic, and nutrient poor soil conditions can all contribute to the failure of any type of new seeding including frost-seeded red clover.

Frost seeding often does not work well in fields of well-nourished Kentucky bluegrass. Note also the amount of thatch that will reduce soil-seed contact.

Competition for nutrients, light, and moisture can all lead to frost-seeding failure.  The Kentucky bluegrass field next to the barn generally will not respond well to frost-seeding.  The abundant N present from past manure applications together with the sod-forming nature of Kentucky bluegrass make it difficult for clover seedlings to get a start.  Kentucky bluegrass also has a shallow root system and that can quickly exhaust the moisture in the top two inches of soil, increasing stress on the seedling.

 

these small unifoliate-stage red clover seedlings need to get more light soon. Timely first-cut harvest is essential to frost-seeding success.

Red clover can take quite a lot of shade for a little while, but there are limits. This is another reason to be timely with harvesting your first cutting – to open up the canopy to give the clover more light.  Keep in mind that in the year you frost-seed, you probably will not see significant clover present until July.

Abuse. There are many ways to kill a plant.  One very good way to kill (or severely handicap) a clover seedling is to cut your hay at 2” when the clover seedlings are only 3” tall.  Many farmers routinely cut their forages too low, which reduces the annual yield, reduces quality, weakens plants, and introduces more soil (which shows up as percent ash in your forage analysis) into the harvested product.  Keeping your harvest height over three inches offers many benefits including enhanced establishment of the red clover seedlings.

Other Considerations

Red clover that is well established in the first year generally will expire by the end of the third year.  The cost of the seed compared to the value of the improved yield and quality of the haylage is the main argument for frost-seeding every year.  If you have conditions that are good for frost seeding and choose to frost-seed every year, the lower rates (5 – 7 lb/ac) are probably sufficient to maintain an abundant population of red clover plants in the stand.  If you are frost-seeding for the first time, a higher rate (8 – 12 lb/ac) are advisable.  Addressing soil fertility problems, especially low potassium and low-pH, will improve the establishment, vigor, and longevity of clover plants.

 Reference in this article to the Herd Seeder is not an endorsement by UVM of the product or company or a claim that it is superior in quality, functionality or value to other products that are on the market.

2013 VT Agronomy Plus!

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The locations, dates, and topics for the 2013 VT Agronomy Plus meetings are finalized and I want to pass the details along.

You can view the flyer for the event by going to: 2013 VT Agronomy Plus (http://agronomator.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/2013-vt_agronomy_plus1.pdf)

Registration information, topics, locations, and dates follow:

Register for the event by going to: http://2013agronomyplus.eventbrite.com

Dates and Locations: 

Jan. 8 - Morrisville: Stone Grill Pub and Restaurant, 116 Vermont Route 1, Morrisville, VT
Jan. 10 – Randolph: VT Small Business Development Center, 1540 Vermont Route 66, Randolph, VT
Jan. 17 – South Deerfield, Mass.:  UMass Crop and Animal Research and Education Center, 89-91 River Road (this event is being led by UMass under the title ‘Cost-Reducing Strategies for Dairy and Livestock Operations.‘ To register for the South Deerfield, MA event call Mallory at 413-545-5221
Jan. 18 – Springfield: Holiday Inn, 818 Charlestown Road, Springfield, VT
Jan. 22 – Derby: The Derby Cow Palace, 3111 U.S. Route 5, Derby, VT
Jan. 31 – St. Johnsbury: The NEW UVM Extension office located at 374 Emerson Falls Road, Suite 1, St. Johnsbury, Vt.

Time (all locations): 10:00 a.m. – 3:30 p.m. (registration begins at 9:30 a.m.).

For directions, call 802-751-8307 or email brent.passut@uvm.edu

Topics:

from Oregon State University

FIRST: Reduce feed costs by controlling feed losses!  Did you know that silage losses above 40% are not uncommon and that many farmers could save tens of thousands of dollars by tightening up their feed management systems? Come learn basic and advanced practices to reduce ‘shrink’ on your farm!  Speakers will include Limin Kung, Jr. (University of Delaware), Sid Bosworth (UVM), or Rick Kersbergen (UMaine), depending on location.

Second: Soybeans in Vermont!  With commodity prices seeming to be stuck in the stratosphere, some farmers are looking for ways to manage feed costs by producing their own soybeans and more concentrated energy sources such as ‘snaplage.’  Dennis Kauppila will lead a conversation about the economics of soybean production in Vermont, and Daniel Hudson will discuss the top ten practices for high-yield soybean production.  We will share the experiences of a NEK dairy farmer who raised soybeans for the first time in 2012.

picture from newagtalk.com

Third: some farmers are addressing sky-high feed prices by moving their herd toward a ‘high-forage diet.’  Tony Kitsos (UVM), Bill Kipp (Independent Dairy Consultants), and Rick Kersbergen (UMaine) will be guiding a discussion about key considerations for finding success with ‘high-forage’ diets.

LUNCH!  Resource Management Incorporated (RMI) is generously providing lunch at the Morrisville, Randolph, Springfield, Derby, and St. Johnsbury locations.  New England Organics will be providing lunch at the South Deerfield, MA location. During lunch Pam Smith (UVM) will lead a brief Farm Bill and Risk Management update.

Fourth: it is hard to overstate the impact that soil fertility has on crop productivity and quality.  Even so, MANY fields in Vermont are severely acidic and critically deficient in phosphorus, potassium, and/or magnesium.  While commercial fertilizer are convenient tools to solve these problems, they are also very expensive. Daniel Hudson (UVM) will lead a discussion about the merits, demerits, and relative costs of various fertilizer alternatives that are available to New England Farmers.  We will also have a brief discussion about changes in State MFO rules that will require record-keeping as well as new technology can help you meet this new challenge with relative ease!

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Fifth:  animal health has an enormous impact on the profitability of dairy farms.  Local veterinarians will be discussing modern vaccination programs that will help you maintain maximum productivity.  Pfizer is generously sponsoring this discussion by compensating the vets for their time.

Finally, two other sessions will vary by location, but will include excellent information on: the impact of nitrogen on grass yield and forage quality; an update on snaplage harvest and feeding based on the experiences of Vermont farmers; maximizing forage quality; corn variety trial results; farm safety; and more!  Speakers will include Sid Bosworth (UVM), George Cook (UVM), Masoud Hashemi (UMass), Daniel Hudson (UVM), Rick Kersbergen (UMaine), Carl Majewski (UNH)

Any reference to commercial products, trade names, or brand names is for information only, and no endorsement or approval is intended.

CCA credits pending.

Thanks again to our sponsors: Pfizer animal health, Resource Management Incorporated, and the USDA-RMA!

Choosing the Right Corn Silage Hybrid for Your Farm

by Daniel Hudson, UVM Extension Agronomist

Many dairy farmers in the Northeast are making decisions about the corn silage varieties they will plant next year.  The importance of this decision to the financial success of a dairy cannot be overstated.  Quality differences among hybrids can lead to 300 – 600 pounds of

milk per ton differences; bringing yield differences into the equation can easily lead to a 9,000+ lb of milk/acre difference among varieties as calculated by the University of Wisconsin Milk 2000 Spreadsheet . 

While the economic value of choosing the best hybrids for each farm is extremely high, well-designed third-party variety trials are not generally increasing in abundance or scope.  First of all, entering hybrids in these trials is said to be expensive, although I do not quite see it that way given the enormous volume of corn seed sold each year and the price farmers pay for it.  Secondly, as an advertising tool companies may not see much value to such trials if their hybrids do not happen to rise to the top.  Thus, in many cases the only

information farmers have comes from seed company-generated data.  As helpful as that information may be for comparing varieties from within that company, it is not advisable to use intra-company data to compare hybrids from Company A to those of Company B.  If the varieties that are being promoted to you are not represented in local land-grant university variety trials in an area similar to your own growing conditions, urge your seed company representatives to get them entered next year.  If they do not seem receptive, resolve to do some corn hybrid testing with neighboring farmers, several seed salesmen, and your local Extension agronomist.    Poor corn hybrid selection could cost a farmer well over $200/acre if they are selling the crop for cash and much more if they are feeding it to their cows.

Credit: Joe Lauer, University of Wisconsin

If you have no local unbiased local data from 2012, another option is to access data coming from areas that have similar environmental factors to your own farm.  Extrapolating from trials conducted in other ‘northern tier’ states to your farm should be done with extreme caution. Research conducted by University of Wisconsin and elsewhere demonstrates that forage quality of particular varieties is highly repeatable across different environments, but yield is much more variable.  Assessing the yield stability of a variety across environments can be difficult because few individual varieties appear in University variety trials across multiple northern-tier states.  The results of the corn variety trials conducted by northern-tier Land-grant universities can be found at their websites: New York, Maine, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin (1, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11).

The importance of silage quality cannot be over-emphasized.

grain particles sieved from manure. Credit: University of Minnesota

Grain prices are high and this makes dairy farmers and nutritionists more interested than ever in levels of ADF, NDF, NDF digestibility (NDFd), non-structural carbohydrates (NSC), and starch digestibility.  Starch digestibility is related to the chemical/physical properties of the kernel.  Kernel texture can fall anywhere along the spectrum from easily digested ‘floury endosperm’ to the more difficult to digest vitreous (also known as ‘flinty,’ or ‘glassy’) endosperm.  Depending on the time spent in the silo and the degree of processing, pieces of corn from flinty hybrids may pass through in the manure, while the kernels from floury endosperm varieties tend to be digested much more completely.  Ask your seed representative if they have data that is helpful for you to evaluate the quality attributes listed above.

What about BMR corn?                                                                                                                 While BMR corn has a reputation for giving lower silage yields than non-BMR varieties,

BMR corn (left), non-BMR (right); credit: University of Wisconsin

research done by Heather Darby in Vermont (2010 and 2011) has shown that some BMR varieties are capable of delivering very high yields (3, 4).  That being the case, if you want to give BMR a fair shot on your farm, plant some of the best BMR candidates on your best agronomic soils (as opposed to that gravely hill back in the woods that can’t be seen from the road).  In general, BMR varieties seem to be much less forgiving of sub-optimal soil conditions than non-BMR varieties.  In poor agronomic soils conditions, it is not uncommon to see stunted BMR corn plants that are in various stages of lodging.

Avoid extremes and incorporate diversity.  Long-maturity hybrids might give bunker-busting yields one year, and disappoint you for several years after that.  Research done in Minnesota (see especially figures 7 through 9) and Vermont has shown that shorter maturity hybrids often give yields as good or better than longer-day varieties (2, 5).  A corollary benefit is that earlier hybrids are ready to harvest earlier, which has added benefits for spreading manure, planting cover crops, reducing soil compaction, scheduling the custom harvester, etc.  You do not need to plant the longest-day varieties to optimize your yield.

Yield and quality risk can also be reduced by planting several different corn silage varieties even if you happen to have fairly uniform growing conditions among your fields.  Different varieties will move through critical stages of development at different times.  Adverse weather during a particular week might severely reduce pollination success in one variety, but it is much less likely to have the same impact on three or four varieties.

What about disease and insect resistance?

Credit: Heather Darby, UVM Extension

If you are in an area with northern corn leaf blight or other disease pressures, selecting a resistant variety is extremely important.  For those who have had challenges with fall armyworms and expect the same in the future, selecting a variety with an appropriate Bt trait is important (6).

 

Dealing with environmental variability

One of the challenges in the Northeast is the extreme variability of growing conditions from one area to the next.  We have upland areas, river-bottom soils, mountain aspect considerations, and a wide range of soil types.  Diverse geographical features also make temperature, cloud-cover, and precipitation patterns highly variable across the region.  This variability may require a more diverse set of hybrids than one farmer prefers to deal with, but matching varieties to conditions is extremely important and one more reason to experiment with different varieties on the different soils on your farm.

Many farmers will not have the benefit of local University-run corn silage variety trials in their specific location or environment next year.  In this case, resolve now to work with your local Extension agronomist, seed company representatives, and neighboring farmers to establish a small-scale variety trial on your own farm.  Establishing, maintaining, and collecting data from these plots can be accomplished with surprising efficiency, but plots need to be established properly in order for the data to be meaningful.

If you are interested in establishing silage variety trials in your area, contact your local Extension agronomist.  To reach Daniel Hudson, call 802-751-8307 or e-mail daniel.hudson@uvm.edu

References:

(1)   Cornell University Extension.   New York Corn Silage Hybrid Tests.  Online:  http://css.cals.cornell.edu/extension/publications.cfm

(2)   Coulter, J., and R. Van Roekel.  2009. Selecting corn hybrids for grain production.  Online: http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystems/M1276.html

(3)   Darby, H. 2010. BMR Corn Report [Vermont].  Online: http://www.uvm.edu/extension/cropsoil/wp-content/uploads/BMR-Corn-Report-2010.pdf

(4)   Darby, H. 2011. Brown Midrib Corn Variety Trial Report [Vermont].  Online: http://www.uvm.edu/extension/cropsoil/wp-content/uploads/2011_BMR_corn_variety_trial.pdf

(5)   Darby, H. 2011. Short season corn silage report.  Online: http://www.uvm.edu/extension/cropsoil/wp-content/uploads/Short_Season_Corn_Report_2011.pdf

(6)   DiFonzo, C., and E. Cullen.  2012. Handy Bt Trait Table.  Online: http://www3.ag.purdue.edu/agry/PCPP/Documents/Entry%20forms/Handy_Bt_Trait_Table.pdf

(7)   Kersbergen, R., and C. Fitzgerald. 2011 Maine Corn Hybrid Performance Trial.  Online: http://umaine.edu/waldo/files/2010/01/Silage-Trial-Report-2011-12-13.pdf

(8)   Michigan State University Extension.  2012 Michigan Corn Hybrids Compared.  Online: http://www.css.msu.edu/varietytrials/corn/Corntrials.htm

(9)   Penn State University Extension.  2012 Corn Hybrid Evaluation Reports.  Online: http://cornandsoybeans.psu.edu/hybrideval.cfm

(10)University of Vermont Extension.  Corn Hybrid and Variety Selection.  Online: http://pss.uvm.edu/vtcrops/?Page=cornsilage.html#Hybrid

(11)University of Wisconsin Extension.  Wisconsin Corn hybrid Trials.  Online: http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/HT/Default.aspx